1. 1] Prevention of hospital-acquired infections: A practical guide. 2nd edition. WHO/CDS/CSR/EPH/2002/12. Available at http://www.who.int/emc

2. [2] Behzadnia S, Davoudi A, Rezai MS, Ahangarkani F. Nosocomial infections in pediatric population and antibiotic resistance of the causative organisms in North of Iran. Iran Red Crescent Med J 2014; 16: e14562. (Persian). [DOI:10.5812/ircmj.14562] [PMID] [PMCID]

3. [3] Martin-Loeches, Rodriguez AH, Torres A. New guidelines for hospital-acquired pneumonia/ventilator-associated pneumonia: USA vs. Eur Curr Opin Crit Care 2018; 24: 347-352. [DOI:10.1097/MCC.0000000000000535] [PMID]

4. [4] Barbier F, Andremont A, Wolff M, Bouadma L. Hospital-acquired pneumonia and ventilator-associated pneumonia: recent advances in epidemiology and management. Curr Opin Pulm Med 2013; 19: 216-228. [DOI:10.1097/MCP.0b013e32835f27be] [PMID]

5. [5] Bassetti M, Righi E, Vena A, Graziano E, Russo A, Peghin M. Risk stratification and treatment of ICU-acquired pneumonia caused by multidrug- resistant/extensively drug-resistant/pandrug-resistant bacteria. Curr Opin Crit Care 2018; 24: 385-393. [DOI:10.1097/MCC.0000000000000534] [PMID]

6. [6] Mandell LA, Wunderink RG. Pneumonia. In: Kasper DL, Fauci AS, Hauser SL, Longo DL, Jameon JL, Loscalzo J, editors. Harrisons's Principles of Internal Medicine. 19th ed. USA: McGraw-Hill; 2015; p: 803-813.

7. [7] Zhu J, Zhang X, Shi G , Yi K, Tan X . Atrial fibrillation is an independent risk factor for hospital-acquired pneumonia. PLoS One 2015; 10: e0131782. [DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0131782] [PMID] [PMCID]

8. [8] Khan HA, Baig FK, Mehboob R. Nosocomial infections: Epidemiology, prevention, control and surveillance. Asian Pacific J Tropic Biomed 2017; 7: 478-482. [DOI:10.1016/j.apjtb.2017.01.019]

9. [9] Mandell GL, Bennett JE, Dolin R. Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett's principles and practice of infectious diseases: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier; 2020; p: 3577-3578.

10. [10] Ashraf M, Ostrosky-Zeichner L. Ventilator-associated pneumonia: a review. Hosp Pract 2012; 40: 93-105. [DOI:10.3810/hp.2012.02.950] [PMID]

11. [11] Nassaji M, Mosavi S, Ghorbani R. Incidences of nosocomial pneumonia in patients above 15 years in intensive care units of university hospital in Semnan. Koomesh 2004; 5: 89-94. (Persian).

12. [12] Nadi E , Nekouii B, Mobin A, Nekouii A, Moghim Beigi A. Frequency of nosocomial pneumonia in ICUs of hospitals of Hamadan university of medical sciences. J Isfahan Med Sch 2011; 29: 1255-1262. (Persian).

13. [13] Salehifar E, Abedi S, Mirzaei E, Kalhor Sh, Eslami G, Ala Sh, Alyali M, Sharifpour A. Profile of microorganisms involved in nosocomial pneumonia and their antimicrobial resistance pattern in intensive care units of Imam Khomeini hospital, Sari 2011-2012. J Mazand Univ Med Sci 2013; 23: 151-162 (Persian).

14. [14] Denys D, Martens P, Mullie A, Lust P. Incidence of nosocomial pneumonia in ICU patients. Acta Anaesth Belg 1993; 44: 111-118.

15. [15] Marsh B, Hone R, White M, Phelan D, Fabry J. European nosocomial infection survey: analysis of Irish data. Irish intensive care nosocomial pneumonia survey group. Ir Med J 1996; 89: 96-98.

16. [16] Trivedi TH, Shejale SB, Yeolekar ME. Nosocomial pneumonia in medical intensive care unit. J Assoc Physicians India 2000; 48: 1070-1073.

17. [17] Diling Wu, Chenfang Wu, Siye Zhang, Yanjun Zhong. Risk factors of ventilator-associated pneumonia in critically III patients. Front Pharmacol 2019; 10: 482. [DOI:10.3389/fphar.2019.00482] [PMID] [PMCID]

18. [18] Erbay H, Yalcin AN, Serin S, Turgut H, Tomatir E, Cetin B, Zencir M. Nosocomial infections in intensive care unit in a Turkish university hospital: a 2-year survey. Intensive Care Med 2003; 29: 1482-1488. [DOI:10.1007/s00134-003-1788-x] [PMID]

19. [19] Nobahar M, Razavi MR, Malek F, Ghorbani R. Incidence of ventilator-associated pneumonia in intensive care units and its relationship with risk factors. RJMS 2016; 22: 134-145 (Persian).

20. [20] Ranjbar H, Jafari S, Kamrani F, Alavi Majd H, Yaghmaei F, Asgari A. Effect of Chlorhexidine gluconate oral rinse on late onset ventilator associated pneumonia prevention and its interaction with severity of the illness. Iran J Crit Care Nurs 2010; 3: 81-86 (Persian).

21. [21] Chao YF, Chen YY, Wang KW, Lee RP, Tsai H. Removal of oral secretion prior to position change can reduce the incidence of ventilator-associated pneumonia for adult ICU patients: a clinical controlled trial study. J Clin Nurs 2009; 18: 22-28. [DOI:10.1111/j.1365-2702.2007.02193.x] [PMID]

22. [22] Bercault N, Boulain T. Mortality rate attributable to ventilator-associated nosocomial pneumonia in an adult intensive care unit: a prospective case-control study. Crit Care Med 2001; 29: 2303-2309. [DOI:10.1097/00003246-200112000-00012] [PMID]

23. [23] Rouzé A, Cottereau A, Nseir S. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and the risk for ventilator-associated pneumonia. Curr Opin Crit Care 2014; 20: 525-531. [DOI:10.1097/MCC.0000000000000123] [PMID]

24. [24] Koulenti D, Lisboa T, Brun-Buisson C, Krueger W, Macor A, Sole-Violan J, et al. Spectrum of practice in the diagnosis of nosocomial pneumonia in patients requiring mechanical ventilation in European intensive care units. Crit Care Med 2009; 37: 2360-2368. [DOI:10.1097/CCM.0b013e3181a037ac] [PMID]

25. [1] Prevention of hospital-acquired infections: A practical guide. 2nd edition. WHO/CDS/CSR/EPH/2002/12. Available at http://www.who.int/emc

26. [2] Behzadnia S, Davoudi A, Rezai MS, Ahangarkani F. Nosocomial infections in pediatric population and antibiotic resistance of the causative organisms in North of Iran. Iran Red Crescent Med J 2014; 16: e14562. (Persian). [DOI:10.5812/ircmj.14562] [PMID] [PMCID]

27. [3] Martin-Loeches, Rodriguez AH, Torres A. New guidelines for hospital-acquired pneumonia/ventilator-associated pneumonia: USA vs. Eur Curr Opin Crit Care 2018; 24: 347-352. [DOI:10.1097/MCC.0000000000000535] [PMID]

28. [4] Barbier F, Andremont A, Wolff M, Bouadma L. Hospital-acquired pneumonia and ventilator-associated pneumonia: recent advances in epidemiology and management. Curr Opin Pulm Med 2013; 19: 216-228. [DOI:10.1097/MCP.0b013e32835f27be] [PMID]

29. [5] Bassetti M, Righi E, Vena A, Graziano E, Russo A, Peghin M. Risk stratification and treatment of ICU-acquired pneumonia caused by multidrug- resistant/extensively drug-resistant/pandrug-resistant bacteria. Curr Opin Crit Care 2018; 24: 385-393. [DOI:10.1097/MCC.0000000000000534] [PMID]

30. [6] Mandell LA, Wunderink RG. Pneumonia. In: Kasper DL, Fauci AS, Hauser SL, Longo DL, Jameon JL, Loscalzo J, editors. Harrisons's Principles of Internal Medicine. 19th ed. USA: McGraw-Hill; 2015; p: 803-813.

31. [7] Zhu J, Zhang X, Shi G , Yi K, Tan X . Atrial fibrillation is an independent risk factor for hospital-acquired pneumonia. PLoS One 2015; 10: e0131782. [DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0131782] [PMID] [PMCID]

32. [8] Khan HA, Baig FK, Mehboob R. Nosocomial infections: Epidemiology, prevention, control and surveillance. Asian Pacific J Tropic Biomed 2017; 7: 478-482. [DOI:10.1016/j.apjtb.2017.01.019]

33. [9] Mandell GL, Bennett JE, Dolin R. Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett's principles and practice of infectious diseases: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier; 2020; p: 3577-3578.

34. [10] Ashraf M, Ostrosky-Zeichner L. Ventilator-associated pneumonia: a review. Hosp Pract 2012; 40: 93-105. [DOI:10.3810/hp.2012.02.950] [PMID]

35. [11] Nassaji M, Mosavi S, Ghorbani R. Incidences of nosocomial pneumonia in patients above 15 years in intensive care units of university hospital in Semnan. Koomesh 2004; 5: 89-94. (Persian).

36. [12] Nadi E , Nekouii B, Mobin A, Nekouii A, Moghim Beigi A. Frequency of nosocomial pneumonia in ICUs of hospitals of Hamadan university of medical sciences. J Isfahan Med Sch 2011; 29: 1255-1262. (Persian).

37. [13] Salehifar E, Abedi S, Mirzaei E, Kalhor Sh, Eslami G, Ala Sh, Alyali M, Sharifpour A. Profile of microorganisms involved in nosocomial pneumonia and their antimicrobial resistance pattern in intensive care units of Imam Khomeini hospital, Sari 2011-2012. J Mazand Univ Med Sci 2013; 23: 151-162 (Persian).

38. [14] Denys D, Martens P, Mullie A, Lust P. Incidence of nosocomial pneumonia in ICU patients. Acta Anaesth Belg 1993; 44: 111-118.

39. [15] Marsh B, Hone R, White M, Phelan D, Fabry J. European nosocomial infection survey: analysis of Irish data. Irish intensive care nosocomial pneumonia survey group. Ir Med J 1996; 89: 96-98.

40. [16] Trivedi TH, Shejale SB, Yeolekar ME. Nosocomial pneumonia in medical intensive care unit. J Assoc Physicians India 2000; 48: 1070-1073.

41. [17] Diling Wu, Chenfang Wu, Siye Zhang, Yanjun Zhong. Risk factors of ventilator-associated pneumonia in critically III patients. Front Pharmacol 2019; 10: 482. [DOI:10.3389/fphar.2019.00482] [PMID] [PMCID]

42. [18] Erbay H, Yalcin AN, Serin S, Turgut H, Tomatir E, Cetin B, Zencir M. Nosocomial infections in intensive care unit in a Turkish university hospital: a 2-year survey. Intensive Care Med 2003; 29: 1482-1488. [DOI:10.1007/s00134-003-1788-x] [PMID]

43. [19] Nobahar M, Razavi MR, Malek F, Ghorbani R. Incidence of ventilator-associated pneumonia in intensive care units and its relationship with risk factors. RJMS 2016; 22: 134-145 (Persian).

44. [20] Ranjbar H, Jafari S, Kamrani F, Alavi Majd H, Yaghmaei F, Asgari A. Effect of Chlorhexidine gluconate oral rinse on late onset ventilator associated pneumonia prevention and its interaction with severity of the illness. Iran J Crit Care Nurs 2010; 3: 81-86 (Persian).

45. [21] Chao YF, Chen YY, Wang KW, Lee RP, Tsai H. Removal of oral secretion prior to position change can reduce the incidence of ventilator-associated pneumonia for adult ICU patients: a clinical controlled trial study. J Clin Nurs 2009; 18: 22-28. [DOI:10.1111/j.1365-2702.2007.02193.x] [PMID]

46. [22] Bercault N, Boulain T. Mortality rate attributable to ventilator-associated nosocomial pneumonia in an adult intensive care unit: a prospective case-control study. Crit Care Med 2001; 29: 2303-2309. [DOI:10.1097/00003246-200112000-00012] [PMID]

47. [23] Rouzé A, Cottereau A, Nseir S. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and the risk for ventilator-associated pneumonia. Curr Opin Crit Care 2014; 20: 525-531. [DOI:10.1097/MCC.0000000000000123] [PMID]

48. [24] Koulenti D, Lisboa T, Brun-Buisson C, Krueger W, Macor A, Sole-Violan J, et al. Spectrum of practice in the diagnosis of nosocomial pneumonia in patients requiring mechanical ventilation in European intensive care units. Crit Care Med 2009; 37: 2360-2368. [DOI:10.1097/CCM.0b013e3181a037ac] [PMID]